Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study

Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study Publisher Pubmed

Bourne RRA¹ ; Steinmetz JD³ ; Flaxman S⁷ ; Briant PS¹ ; Taylor HR¹⁰ ; Resnikoff S^{11, 12} ; Casson RJ¹³ ; Abdoli A¹⁴ ; Abugharbieh E¹⁵ ; Afshin A^{3, 4} ; Ahmadieh H^{16, 17} ; Akalu Y²⁰ ; Alamneh AA²² ; Alemayehu W^{23, 24} Show All Authors

Bourne RRA¹
Steinmetz JD³
Flaxman S⁷
Briant PS¹
Taylor HR¹⁰
Resnikoff S^{11, 12}
Casson RJ¹³
Abdoli A¹⁴
Abugharbieh E¹⁵
Afshin A^{3, 4}
Ahmadieh H^{16, 17}
Akalu Y²⁰
Alamneh AA²²
Alemayehu W^{23, 24}
Alfaar AS^{25, 26}
Alipour V^{27, 28}
Anbesu EW³¹
Androudi S³²
Arabloo J²⁷
Arditi A³³
Asaad M³⁴
Bagli E^{35, 36}
Baig AA³⁷
Barnighausen TW^{38, 40}
Parodi MB⁴²
Bhagavathula AS^{43, 44}
Bhardwaj N⁴⁵
Bhardwaj P^{46, 47}
Bhattacharyya K^{48, 49}
Bijani A⁵⁰
Bikbov M⁵¹
Bottone M^{7, 52}
Braithwaite T^{53, 54}
Bron AM^{55, 56}
Butt ZA^{57, 58}
Cheng CY^{59, 60}
Chu DT⁶¹
Cicinelli MV⁶²
Coelho JM⁶³
Dagnew B²¹
Dai X³
Dana R⁴¹
Dandona L^{3, 64, 65}
Dandona R^{3, 4, 64}
Del Monte MA⁶⁶
Deva JP⁶⁸
Diaz D^{69, 70}
Djalalinia S⁷¹
Dreer LE⁷²
Ehrlich JR^{66, 67}
Ellwein LB⁷⁴
Emamian MH⁷⁵
Fernandes AG⁷⁶
Fischer F⁷⁷
Friedman DS⁴¹
Furtado JM⁷⁸
Gaidhane AM⁷⁹
Gaidhane S⁸²
Gazzard G⁸³
Gebremichael B⁸⁴
George R⁸⁵
Ghashghaee A^{27, 29}
Golechha M⁸⁶
Hamidi S⁸⁸
Hammond BR⁸⁹
Hartnett MER⁹⁰
Hartono RK⁹¹
Hay SI^{3, 4}
Heidari G⁹²
Ho HC⁹³
Hoang CL⁹⁴
Househ M⁹⁵
Ibitoye SE⁹⁶
Ilic IM⁹⁷
Ilic MD⁹⁸
Ingram AD⁹⁹
Irvani SSN¹⁸
Jha RP^{100, 101}
Kahloun R¹⁰²
Kandel H^{103, 104}
Kasa AS¹⁰⁵
Kempen JH^{41, 106}
Keramati M¹⁰⁷
Khairallah M¹⁰⁹
Khan EA¹¹⁰
Khanna RC^{11, 111}
Khatib MN⁸⁰
Kim JE¹¹²
Kim YJ¹¹³
Kisa A^{114, 115}
Kisa S¹¹⁶
Koyanagi A^{117, 118}
Kurmi OP^{119, 121}
Lansingh VC^{122, 123}
Leasher JL¹²⁴
Leveziel N^{125, 126}
Limburg H¹²⁷
Majdan M¹²⁸
Manafi N^{30, 129}
Mansouri K^{130, 131}
Mcalinden C¹³²
Mohammadi SF¹³³
Mohammadianhafshejani A¹³⁴
Mohammadpourhodki R¹⁰⁷
Mokdad AH^{3, 4}
Moosavi D¹³⁵
Morse AR^{136, 137}
Naderi M¹³⁸
Naidoo KS^{11, 139}
Nangia V¹⁴⁰
Nguyen CT¹⁴¹
Nguyen HLT¹⁴¹
Ogundimu K¹⁴²
Olagunju AT^{120, 121, 143}
Ostroff SM^{3, 5}
Pandajones S³⁹
Pesudovs K¹¹
Peto T¹⁴⁴
Syed ZQ⁷⁹
Ur Rahman MH¹⁴⁵
Ramulu PY¹⁴⁶
Rawaf DL^{8, 148}
Rawaf S^{9, 149}
Reinig N³
Robin AL^{147, 150}
Rossetti L¹⁵¹
Safi S^{16, 19}
Sahebkar A^{108, 152}
Samy AM¹⁵³
Saxena D^{79, 87}
Serle JB¹⁵⁴
Shaikh MA¹⁵⁵
Shen TT⁶
Shibuya K¹⁵⁶
Shin JI¹⁵⁷
Silva JC¹⁵⁸
Silvester A^{2, 159}
Singh JA^{73, 160}
Singhal D^{81, 161}
Sitorus RS^{162, 163}
Skiadaresi E¹⁶⁴
Skirbekk V¹⁶⁵
Soheili A¹⁶⁶
Sousa RARC¹⁶⁷
Spurlock EE³
Stambolian D¹⁶⁸
Taddele BW¹⁶⁹
Tadesse EG¹⁷⁰
Tahhan N¹¹
Tareque MDI¹⁷¹
Topouzis F¹⁷²
Tran BX¹⁷³
Travillian RS³
Tsilimbaris MK¹⁷⁴
Varma R¹⁷⁵
Virgili G^{144, 176}
Wang N¹⁷⁷
Wang YX¹⁷⁸
West SK¹⁴⁶
Wong TY^{1, 179}
Zaidi Z¹⁸⁰
Zewdie KA¹⁸¹
Jonas JB^{2, 178}
Vos T^{3, 4}

Source: The Lancet Global Health Published:2021

Abstract

Background: To contribute to the WHO initiative, VISION 2020: The Right to Sight, an assessment of global vision impairment in 2020 and temporal change is needed. We aimed to extensively update estimates of global vision loss burden, presenting estimates for 2020, temporal change over three decades between 1990–2020, and forecasts for 2050. Methods: We did a systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based surveys of eye disease from January, 1980, to October, 2018. Only studies with samples representative of the population and with clearly defined visual acuity testing protocols were included. We fitted hierarchical models to estimate 2020 prevalence (with 95% uncertainty intervals [UIs]) of mild vision impairment (presenting visual acuity ≥6/18 and <6/12), moderate and severe vision impairment (<6/18 to 3/60), and blindness (<3/60 or less than 10° visual field around central fixation); and vision impairment from uncorrected presbyopia (presenting near vision

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Style	Citing Format
MLA	Bourne RRA, et al.. "Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study." The Lancet Global Health, vol. 9, no. 2, 2021, pp. e130-e143.
APA	Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, Briant PS, Taylor HR, Resnikoff S, Casson RJ, Abdoli A, Abugharbieh E, Afshin A, Ahmadieh H, Akalu Y, Alamneh AA, Alemayehu W, Alfaar AS, Alipour V, Anbesu EW, Androudi S, Arabloo J, ... Vos T (2021). Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet Global Health, 9(2), e130-e143.
Chicago	Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, Briant PS, Taylor HR, Resnikoff S, Casson RJ, et al.. "Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study." The Lancet Global Health 9, no. 2 (2021): e130-e143.
Harvard	Bourne RRA et al. (2021) 'Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study', The Lancet Global Health, 9(2), pp. e130-e143.
Vancouver	Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, Briant PS, Taylor HR, Resnikoff S, et al.. Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet Global Health. 2021;9(2):e130-e143.
BibTex	@article{ author = {Bourne RRA and Steinmetz JD and Flaxman S and Briant PS and Taylor HR and Resnikoff S and Casson RJ and Abdoli A and Abugharbieh E and Afshin A and Ahmadieh H and Akalu Y and Alamneh AA and Alemayehu W and Alfaar AS and Alipour V and Anbesu EW and Androudi S and Arabloo J and Arditi A and Asaad M and Bagli E and Baig AA and Barnighausen TW and Parodi MB and Bhagavathula AS and Bhardwaj N and Bhardwaj P and Bhattacharyya K and Bijani A and Bikbov M and Bottone M and Braithwaite T and Bron AM and Butt ZA and Cheng CY and Chu DT and Cicinelli MV and Coelho JM and Dagnew B and Dai X and Dana R and Dandona L and Dandona R and Del Monte MA and Deva JP and Diaz D and Djalalinia S and Dreer LE and Ehrlich JR and Ellwein LB and Emamian MH and Fernandes AG and Fischer F and Friedman DS and Furtado JM and Gaidhane AM and Gaidhane S and Gazzard G and Gebremichael B and George R and Ghashghaee A and Golechha M and Hamidi S and Hammond BR and Hartnett MER and Hartono RK and Hay SI and Heidari G and Ho HC and Hoang CL and Househ M and Ibitoye SE and Ilic IM and Ilic MD and Ingram AD and Irvani SSN and Jha RP and Kahloun R and Kandel H and Kasa AS and Kempen JH and Keramati M and Khairallah M and Khan EA and Khanna RC and Khatib MN and Kim JE and Kim YJ and Kisa A and Kisa S and Koyanagi A and Kurmi OP and Lansingh VC and Leasher JL and Leveziel N and Limburg H and Majdan M and Manafi N and Mansouri K and Mcalinden C and Mohammadi SF and Mohammadianhafshejani A and Mohammadpourhodki R and Mokdad AH and Moosavi D and Morse AR and Naderi M and Naidoo KS and Nangia V and Nguyen CT and Nguyen HLT and Ogundimu K and Olagunju AT and Ostroff SM and Pandajones S and Pesudovs K and Peto T and Syed ZQ and Ur Rahman MH and Ramulu PY and Rawaf DL and Rawaf S and Reinig N and Robin AL and Rossetti L and Safi S and Sahebkar A and Samy AM and Saxena D and Serle JB and Shaikh MA and Shen TT and Shibuya K and Shin JI and Silva JC and Silvester A and Singh JA and Singhal D and Sitorus RS and Skiadaresi E and Skirbekk V and Soheili A and Sousa RARC and Spurlock EE and Stambolian D and Taddele BW and Tadesse EG and Tahhan N and Tareque MDI and Topouzis F and Tran BX and Travillian RS and Tsilimbaris MK and Varma R and Virgili G and Wang N and Wang YX and West SK and Wong TY and Zaidi Z and Zewdie KA and Jonas JB and Vos T}, title = {Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study}, journal = {The Lancet Global Health}, volume = {9}, number = {2}, pages = {e130-e143}, year = {2021} }
RIS	TY - JOUR AU - Bourne RRA AU - Steinmetz JD AU - Flaxman S AU - Briant PS AU - Taylor HR AU - Resnikoff S AU - Casson RJ AU - Abdoli A AU - Abugharbieh E AU - Afshin A AU - Ahmadieh H AU - Akalu Y AU - Alamneh AA AU - Alemayehu W AU - Alfaar AS AU - Alipour V AU - Anbesu EW AU - Androudi S AU - Arabloo J AU - Arditi A AU - Asaad M AU - Bagli E AU - Baig AA AU - Barnighausen TW AU - Parodi MB AU - Bhagavathula AS AU - Bhardwaj N AU - Bhardwaj P AU - Bhattacharyya K AU - Bijani A AU - Bikbov M AU - Bottone M AU - Braithwaite T AU - Bron AM AU - Butt ZA AU - Cheng CY AU - Chu DT AU - Cicinelli MV AU - Coelho JM AU - Dagnew B AU - Dai X AU - Dana R AU - Dandona L AU - Dandona R AU - Del Monte MA AU - Deva JP AU - Diaz D AU - Djalalinia S AU - Dreer LE AU - Ehrlich JR AU - Ellwein LB AU - Emamian MH AU - Fernandes AG AU - Fischer F AU - Friedman DS AU - Furtado JM AU - Gaidhane AM AU - Gaidhane S AU - Gazzard G AU - Gebremichael B AU - George R AU - Ghashghaee A AU - Golechha M AU - Hamidi S AU - Hammond BR AU - Hartnett MER AU - Hartono RK AU - Hay SI AU - Heidari G AU - Ho HC AU - Hoang CL AU - Househ M AU - Ibitoye SE AU - Ilic IM AU - Ilic MD AU - Ingram AD AU - Irvani SSN AU - Jha RP AU - Kahloun R AU - Kandel H AU - Kasa AS AU - Kempen JH AU - Keramati M AU - Khairallah M AU - Khan EA AU - Khanna RC AU - Khatib MN AU - Kim JE AU - Kim YJ AU - Kisa A AU - Kisa S AU - Koyanagi A AU - Kurmi OP AU - Lansingh VC AU - Leasher JL AU - Leveziel N AU - Limburg H AU - Majdan M AU - Manafi N AU - Mansouri K AU - Mcalinden C AU - Mohammadi SF AU - Mohammadianhafshejani A AU - Mohammadpourhodki R AU - Mokdad AH AU - Moosavi D AU - Morse AR AU - Naderi M AU - Naidoo KS AU - Nangia V AU - Nguyen CT AU - Nguyen HLT AU - Ogundimu K AU - Olagunju AT AU - Ostroff SM AU - Pandajones S AU - Pesudovs K AU - Peto T AU - Syed ZQ AU - Ur Rahman MH AU - Ramulu PY AU - Rawaf DL AU - Rawaf S AU - Reinig N AU - Robin AL AU - Rossetti L AU - Safi S AU - Sahebkar A AU - Samy AM AU - Saxena D AU - Serle JB AU - Shaikh MA AU - Shen TT AU - Shibuya K AU - Shin JI AU - Silva JC AU - Silvester A AU - Singh JA AU - Singhal D AU - Sitorus RS AU - Skiadaresi E AU - Skirbekk V AU - Soheili A AU - Sousa RARC AU - Spurlock EE AU - Stambolian D AU - Taddele BW AU - Tadesse EG AU - Tahhan N AU - Tareque MDI AU - Topouzis F AU - Tran BX AU - Travillian RS AU - Tsilimbaris MK AU - Varma R AU - Virgili G AU - Wang N AU - Wang YX AU - West SK AU - Wong TY AU - Zaidi Z AU - Zewdie KA AU - Jonas JB AU - Vos T TI - Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study JO - The Lancet Global Health VL - 9 IS - 2 SP - e130 EP - e143 PY - 2021 ER -

Style

Citing Format

MLA

Bourne RRA, et al.. "Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study." The Lancet Global Health, vol. 9, no. 2, 2021, pp. e130-e143.

APA

Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, Briant PS, Taylor HR, Resnikoff S, Casson RJ, Abdoli A, Abugharbieh E, Afshin A, Ahmadieh H, Akalu Y, Alamneh AA, Alemayehu W, Alfaar AS, Alipour V, Anbesu EW, Androudi S, Arabloo J, ... Vos T (2021). Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet Global Health, 9(2), e130-e143.

Chicago

Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, Briant PS, Taylor HR, Resnikoff S, Casson RJ, et al.. "Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study." The Lancet Global Health 9, no. 2 (2021): e130-e143.

Harvard

Bourne RRA et al. (2021) 'Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study', The Lancet Global Health, 9(2), pp. e130-e143.

Vancouver

Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, Briant PS, Taylor HR, Resnikoff S, et al.. Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. The Lancet Global Health. 2021;9(2):e130-e143.

BibTex

@article{ author = {Bourne RRA and Steinmetz JD and Flaxman S and Briant PS and Taylor HR and Resnikoff S and Casson RJ and Abdoli A and Abugharbieh E and Afshin A and Ahmadieh H and Akalu Y and Alamneh AA and Alemayehu W and Alfaar AS and Alipour V and Anbesu EW and Androudi S and Arabloo J and Arditi A and Asaad M and Bagli E and Baig AA and Barnighausen TW and Parodi MB and Bhagavathula AS and Bhardwaj N and Bhardwaj P and Bhattacharyya K and Bijani A and Bikbov M and Bottone M and Braithwaite T and Bron AM and Butt ZA and Cheng CY and Chu DT and Cicinelli MV and Coelho JM and Dagnew B and Dai X and Dana R and Dandona L and Dandona R and Del Monte MA and Deva JP and Diaz D and Djalalinia S and Dreer LE and Ehrlich JR and Ellwein LB and Emamian MH and Fernandes AG and Fischer F and Friedman DS and Furtado JM and Gaidhane AM and Gaidhane S and Gazzard G and Gebremichael B and George R and Ghashghaee A and Golechha M and Hamidi S and Hammond BR and Hartnett MER and Hartono RK and Hay SI and Heidari G and Ho HC and Hoang CL and Househ M and Ibitoye SE and Ilic IM and Ilic MD and Ingram AD and Irvani SSN and Jha RP and Kahloun R and Kandel H and Kasa AS and Kempen JH and Keramati M and Khairallah M and Khan EA and Khanna RC and Khatib MN and Kim JE and Kim YJ and Kisa A and Kisa S and Koyanagi A and Kurmi OP and Lansingh VC and Leasher JL and Leveziel N and Limburg H and Majdan M and Manafi N and Mansouri K and Mcalinden C and Mohammadi SF and Mohammadianhafshejani A and Mohammadpourhodki R and Mokdad AH and Moosavi D and Morse AR and Naderi M and Naidoo KS and Nangia V and Nguyen CT and Nguyen HLT and Ogundimu K and Olagunju AT and Ostroff SM and Pandajones S and Pesudovs K and Peto T and Syed ZQ and Ur Rahman MH and Ramulu PY and Rawaf DL and Rawaf S and Reinig N and Robin AL and Rossetti L and Safi S and Sahebkar A and Samy AM and Saxena D and Serle JB and Shaikh MA and Shen TT and Shibuya K and Shin JI and Silva JC and Silvester A and Singh JA and Singhal D and Sitorus RS and Skiadaresi E and Skirbekk V and Soheili A and Sousa RARC and Spurlock EE and Stambolian D and Taddele BW and Tadesse EG and Tahhan N and Tareque MDI and Topouzis F and Tran BX and Travillian RS and Tsilimbaris MK and Varma R and Virgili G and Wang N and Wang YX and West SK and Wong TY and Zaidi Z and Zewdie KA and Jonas JB and Vos T}, title = {Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study}, journal = {The Lancet Global Health}, volume = {9}, number = {2}, pages = {e130-e143}, year = {2021} }

RIS

TY - JOUR
AU - Bourne RRA
AU - Steinmetz JD
AU - Flaxman S
AU - Briant PS
AU - Taylor HR
AU - Resnikoff S
AU - Casson RJ
AU - Abdoli A
AU - Abugharbieh E
AU - Afshin A
AU - Ahmadieh H
AU - Akalu Y
AU - Alamneh AA
AU - Alemayehu W
AU - Alfaar AS
AU - Alipour V
AU - Anbesu EW
AU - Androudi S
AU - Arabloo J
AU - Arditi A
AU - Asaad M
AU - Bagli E
AU - Baig AA
AU - Barnighausen TW
AU - Parodi MB
AU - Bhagavathula AS
AU - Bhardwaj N
AU - Bhardwaj P
AU - Bhattacharyya K
AU - Bijani A
AU - Bikbov M
AU - Bottone M
AU - Braithwaite T
AU - Bron AM
AU - Butt ZA
AU - Cheng CY
AU - Chu DT
AU - Cicinelli MV
AU - Coelho JM
AU - Dagnew B
AU - Dai X
AU - Dana R
AU - Dandona L
AU - Dandona R
AU - Del Monte MA
AU - Deva JP
AU - Diaz D
AU - Djalalinia S
AU - Dreer LE
AU - Ehrlich JR
AU - Ellwein LB
AU - Emamian MH
AU - Fernandes AG
AU - Fischer F
AU - Friedman DS
AU - Furtado JM
AU - Gaidhane AM
AU - Gaidhane S
AU - Gazzard G
AU - Gebremichael B
AU - George R
AU - Ghashghaee A
AU - Golechha M
AU - Hamidi S
AU - Hammond BR
AU - Hartnett MER
AU - Hartono RK
AU - Hay SI
AU - Heidari G
AU - Ho HC
AU - Hoang CL
AU - Househ M
AU - Ibitoye SE
AU - Ilic IM
AU - Ilic MD
AU - Ingram AD
AU - Irvani SSN
AU - Jha RP
AU - Kahloun R
AU - Kandel H
AU - Kasa AS
AU - Kempen JH
AU - Keramati M
AU - Khairallah M
AU - Khan EA
AU - Khanna RC
AU - Khatib MN
AU - Kim JE
AU - Kim YJ
AU - Kisa A
AU - Kisa S
AU - Koyanagi A
AU - Kurmi OP
AU - Lansingh VC
AU - Leasher JL
AU - Leveziel N
AU - Limburg H
AU - Majdan M
AU - Manafi N
AU - Mansouri K
AU - Mcalinden C
AU - Mohammadi SF
AU - Mohammadianhafshejani A
AU - Mohammadpourhodki R
AU - Mokdad AH
AU - Moosavi D
AU - Morse AR
AU - Naderi M
AU - Naidoo KS
AU - Nangia V
AU - Nguyen CT
AU - Nguyen HLT
AU - Ogundimu K
AU - Olagunju AT
AU - Ostroff SM
AU - Pandajones S
AU - Pesudovs K
AU - Peto T
AU - Syed ZQ
AU - Ur Rahman MH
AU - Ramulu PY
AU - Rawaf DL
AU - Rawaf S
AU - Reinig N
AU - Robin AL
AU - Rossetti L
AU - Safi S
AU - Sahebkar A
AU - Samy AM
AU - Saxena D
AU - Serle JB
AU - Shaikh MA
AU - Shen TT
AU - Shibuya K
AU - Shin JI
AU - Silva JC
AU - Silvester A
AU - Singh JA
AU - Singhal D
AU - Sitorus RS
AU - Skiadaresi E
AU - Skirbekk V
AU - Soheili A
AU - Sousa RARC
AU - Spurlock EE
AU - Stambolian D
AU - Taddele BW
AU - Tadesse EG
AU - Tahhan N
AU - Tareque MDI
AU - Topouzis F
AU - Tran BX
AU - Travillian RS
AU - Tsilimbaris MK
AU - Varma R
AU - Virgili G
AU - Wang N
AU - Wang YX
AU - West SK
AU - Wong TY
AU - Zaidi Z
AU - Zewdie KA
AU - Jonas JB
AU - Vos T
TI - Trends in Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and Near Vision Impairment Over 30 Years: An Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study
JO - The Lancet Global Health
VL - 9
IS - 2
SP - e130
EP - e143
PY - 2021
ER -

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